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Wednesday, December 12, 2012

CHAPTER IV

THE CONTENTS OF SALAH

Salah in Islam is a unique institution. It brings man closer to Allah by harmonising his mental attitude with physical posture. In Salah, a Muslim submits himself completely to his Creator.

When you are sure that you have fulfilled all the necessary conditions for Salah, you ready to offer Salah. A detailed account of how to say Salah is given below:

Say to yourself that you intend to offer this Salah(Fajr, Zuhr, 'Asr, Maghrib or 'Isha) Fard or Sunnah. Then raise your hands to your ears (as in figure 15)

ALLAHU AKBAR

Allah is the greatest.

NOTE: The hand is in line with ear lobe

NOTE: Ladies lift their hands up to their shoulders only as shown above.

Now placing your right hand on the left, just below, above or on the navel (as shown in figure 18 - and ladies placing their hands on their chest as shown in figure 17b) recite the following:

SUBHANA-KALLAH-HUMMA WA BI-HAMDAKA

O Allah, Glorified, praise worthy.

WATABARAKAS-MUKA WATA`ALA JADDUKA

and blessed is They Name and exalted Thy Majesty

WA-LA ILAHA GHAIRUK

and there is no deity worthy of worship except Thee.

A`U-THU-BIL-LA-HI MINASHAITANIR RAJEEM

I seek refuge in Allah from the rejected Satan

BISMILAHIR RAHMANIR RAHIM

In the Name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful.

After this recite the opening Surah, Al-Fatihaha:

ALHAMDU LIL-LAHI RAB-BIL `ALAMIN

Praise be to Allah, Lord of the worlds.

AR-RAHMAN-NIR RAHIM

the Beneficent, ther Merciful

MALIKI YAW-MID-DIN

Master of the Day of Judgement

IYYA-KA N`ABUDU WA-IYYAKA NASTA`IN

Thee alone we worship and to Thee alone we turn for help.

IHDI-NAD-SIRA TAL MUSTAQIM

Guide us in the straight path.

SIRA TAL-LATHINA AN-`AMTA `ALIAHIM

the path of those whom You favoured

GHAIRIL MAGHDUBI `ALAINHIM

and who did not deserve Thy anger

WALAD-HALLIN (AMEEN)

or went astray.

Now recite the following or any other passage from the Holy Qur`an:

BISMILA-HIR RAHMA-NIR RAHIM

In the Name of Allah, the Beneficent, ther Merciful

QUL HU-WAL-LAHO AHAD

Say: Allah is one and the only God

ALLA-HUS-SA-MAD

Allah, upon whom all depend

LAM YALID WALAM YULAD

He begots not, nor is He begotten,

WALAM YAKUL-LAHU KUFU-WAN AHAD

and there is nothing which can be compared to Him.

Now bow down saying:

ALLAHU AKBAR

Allah is the greatest.

Place your hands on your knees and in this inclined position (Ruku` as shown in figure 19) recite these words thrice:

SUBHANA RAB-BI-YAL ATHIM

Glory to my Lord the great.

Postrure for ladies in Ruku` is slighty different to that of a man

SUBHANA RAB-BI-YAL ATHIM

Glory to my Lord the great.

SUBHANA RAB-BI-YAL ATHIM

Glory to my Lord the great.

Then come to the standing position (figure 21 & 22) saying:

SAMI `ALLAHU LIMAN HAMIDAH

Allah has heard all who praise Him.

RAB-BANA LAKAL HAMD

Our Lord: Praise be to Thee

Now saying "Allahu Akbar" prostrate on the ground with your forehead, the knees the nose and palms of both hands touching the ground. In this position ajdah - as in figure 23, 24 & 25) repeat these words three times at least:

SUBHANA RAB-BI-YAL A`ALA

Glory to my Lord the most high

SUBHANA RAB-BI-YAL A`ALA

Glory to my Lord the most high

NOTE: Your nose & forehead in with carpet

Sit upright with knees still on the ground after a moments rest perform the second Sajdah saying:

ALLAHU AKBAR

Allah is the Greatest

In the second Sajdah as before recite the following words thrice:

SUBHANA RAB-BI-YAL A'ALA

Glory to my Lord the most high.

This completes one raka'at of Salah. The second raka'at is. said in the same way except that after the second Sajdah you sit back, with the left foot bent towards the right, which should be placed vertical to the mat with the toes touching the mat. The palms should be lifted from the mat and placed on the knees.

In this position (Q'adahas shown in figures 26 and 27 silently say these words (Tashahhud):

AT-TAHI-YATU LIL-LAHI WAS-SALAWATU WAT-TAY-YIBATU

All prayers and worship through words, action and sanctity are for Allah only.

AS-SALAMU `ALAIKA AY-YUHAN-NABIY-YU

Peace be on you, O Prophet

WARAHMATUL-LAHI WABARAKATUH

and Mercy of Allah and His blessings.

AS-SALAMU `ALAINA WA`ALA `IBADIL-LAHIS-SALIHIN

Peace be on us and on those who are righteous servants of Allah.

ASH-HADU AL-LA ILAHA IL-LAL-LAHU

I bear witness to the fact that there is no deity but Allah.

WA-ASH-HADU AN-NA MUHAMMADAN `ABDUHU WARASULUH

I bear witness taht Muhammad is His slave and messenger.

In a three raka`at (i.e. Maghrib) or four raka`at (like Zuhr, `Asr and `Isha) Salah you stand up for the remaining raka`at after Tashahhud. On the other had if it is a two raka`at (Fajr) Salah, keep sitting and after this recite Darud (blessing for the Prophet) in these words:

AL-LAHUM-MA SAL-LI`ALA MUHAMMAD-IN WA `ALA ALI MUHAMMADIN

O Allah, exalt Muhammad and the followers of Muhammad

AL-LAHUM-MA SALAITA `ALA IBRAHIMA WA`ALA ALI IBRAHIMA

As Though did exalt Ibrahim and his followers.

IN-NAKA HAMIDUM MAJEED

Thou art the praised, the Glorious.

AL-LAHUM-MA BARIK MUHAMMAD-IN

O Allah, exalt Muhammad

WA 'ALA ALI MUHAMMADIN

and his followers

KAMABARAKTA 'ALA IBRAHIMA WA 'ALA ALI IBRAHIMA

as Thou has blest Ibrahim and his followers.

IN-NAKA HAMIDUM-MAJEED

Thou art the Praised, the Glorious.

Then say silently:

RAB-BIJ-'ALNI MUQIMAS-SALATI WAMIN DHUR-RIY-YATI

O Lord! Make me and my children steadfast in Prayer;

RAB-BANA WATAQAB-BAL DU'A' RAB-BIGH FIRLI

Lord! Accept the prayer. Our Lord! forgive me.

WA LIWALIDAY-YA WALIL-MU'MININA YAUMA YAQUM-UL HISAB

and my parents and believers on the Day of Judgement.

Now turn your face to the right (as in figure 30) saying;

AS-SALAMU 'ALAIKUM WA-RAHMATUL-LAH

Peace be on you and Allah's blessings.

Then turn your face to the left (as in figure 31) and repeat the above words (aloud).

This completes your two raka'at Salah. The four raka'at of Zuhr, 'Asr and 'Isha are said in an identical manner with the only difference that in the first two Raka'at of Zuhr and 'Asr, Al-Fatihah is said silently while in 'Isha prayer it is recited aloud.

If you are performing a three raka'at (like Maghrib) or four raka'at (like Zuhr, 'Asr and 'Isha) Salah stand up after Tashahhud saying ALLAHU AKBAR and recite Al-Fatihah. You must remember that Al-Fatihah is always recited silently in the third and fourth raka'at of every Salah. When you are offering Fard Salah do not recite any additional passage from the Holy Qur'an after Al-Fatihah in the last two raka'at. After the second Sajdah in the fourth raka'at say the Tashahhud, Darud and end with "AS-SALAMU 'ALAIKUM WA-RAHMATUL-LAH" to each side (first right, then left as shown in the above pictures). This marks the end of Salah.
CHAPTER III

THE CONDUCT OF SALAH

In this section, some guide lines for the correct performance of Salah are given

The most important pre-requisite, Wudu (ablution), is explained in the last chapter. Other important condition are:

1. TIME

Each of the Salah must be offered at or during its proper time. No Salah can be said before its time. There are five obligatory prayers in a day.

  • Fajr - the morning prayer.
  • Zuhr - the early afternoon prayer.
  • 'Asr - the late afternoon prayer.
  • Maghrib - the sun-set prayer.
  • 'Isha - the night prayer.

2. DRESS

Before offering your Salah make sure that you are properly dressed. For men and boys, the dress should be such that it covers their bodies from the navel to the knees at least.

Women are required to cover themselves from head to foot, leaving only the face and hands uncovered. The dress for Salah must be clean and free from all filth. During the monthly period women are free from obligation of Salah.

3. PLACE

Wherever a man might be, he can turn towards Allah in Salah and in devotion. The prophet has said, "The (whole of the) earth has been rendered for me a mosque: pure and clean". Preferably Salah is to be offered in jama'at (congregation). Whenever possible, one should pray facing the Ka'bah, Makkah.

FARD OR NAFILAH

Salah is composed of the Fard (obligatory) and the Nafilah (superogatory) prayers.

The Fard Salah are five in a day. Failure to perform any one of them is a blameable sin. The Nafilah includes the Sunnah, which the Prophet (S.A.W.) used to perform regularly before or after each Fard Salah.

PRAYERS IN SPECIAL CIRCUMSTANCES

When in circumstances where it is not possible to pray, or when on journey, you are permitted to shorten Salah. Such a shortened prayer is known as Salatul-Qasr.

When travelling one may offer two raka'ats in place of four raka'ats in Zuhr, Asr and 'Isha, but there is no change in the two raka'ats of Fajr and three raka'ats of Maghrib Salah. Besides this concession in Fard Salah, one may leave all the additional Sunnah except the two Sunnah raka'ats of Fajr and the Witr of 'Isha prayer. But a section of Muslims do perform Sunnah even when on a journey.

In case the stay at any one place during the journey exceeds a fortnight, complete the Salah, with all the Fard and Sunnah raka'ats must be offered.

If you are sick, you may offer your Salah in a sitting position or Iying in bed, by making signs in place of the physical movements.

In journey, in sickness and in other emergencies, one is allowed to offer two separate Salah jointly. Thus Zuhr and 'Asr can be said together in the last part of the period of Zuhr, Maghrib and 'Isha may also be offered similarly towards the end of Maghrib time (when it is almost dark).

THE CALL TO PRAYER ADHAN

To assemble the Muslims for congregational prayer, "Adhan", or the call to prayer is given. The caller (Mu'adh-dhin) stands facing Ka'bah (Qiblah), and raising his hands to his ears calls in a loud voice:

ALLAHU AKBAR

Allah is the greatest.

ALLAHU AKBAR

Allah is the greatest.

ALLAHU AKBAR

Allah is the greatest.

ALLAHU AKBAR

Allah is the greatest.

ASH-HADU AL-LA ILAHA ILLALLAH

I bear witness that there is no deity but Allah.

ASH-HADU AL-LA ILAHA ILLALLAH

I bear witness that there is no deity but Allah.

ASH-HADU AN-NA MUHAMMADAR-RASULULAH

I bear witness that Muhammed (S.A.W.) is the Messenger of Allah

ASH-HADU AN-NA MUHAMMADAR-RASULULAH

I bear witness that Muhammed (S.A.W.) is the Messenger of Allah.

HAYYA 'ALAS SALAH

Come to prayer.

HAYYA 'ALAS SALAH

Come to prayer.

HAYYA 'ALAL FALAH

Come to your Good.

HAYYA 'ALAL FALAH

Come to your Good.

ALLAHU AKBAR

Allah is the Greatest.

ALLAHU AKBAR

Allah is the Greatest.

LA ILAHA ILLALLAH

There is no deity but Allah.

In Adhan for Fajr Salah, the following sentence is added after:

HAYYA 'ALAL FALAH

ASSALATU KHAYRUM MINAN NAUM

Salah is better than sleep.

ASSALATU KHAYRUM MINAN NAUM

Salah is better than sleep.

DU'A AFTER ADHAN

On completion of the Adhan, Muslims are recommended to recite

ALLAHUMMA RABBA HADHI-HID-DA'WA-TIT-TAMMAH

O Allah! Lord of this complete call and prayer of ours, by the blessing of it.

WAS-SALATIL QAAE-MATI MUHAMMADANIL-WASILATA

give to Muhammed his eternal riqhts of intercession,

WAL FADI-LAT WAD-DARAJATAR RAFI-A

distinction and highest class (in paradise).

WAB 'ATH-HU MAQAMAM-MAHMUDA-NI LATHI WA `ADTAK

And raise him to the promised rank You have promised him.

WAR-ZUQ-NA SHA FA 'ATAHU YAUM-AL-QIYAMAH

and bestow his Intercession on us on the day of judgement.

IN-NAKA LA-TUKHULIFUL-MI`AD

Surely You never go back on your word.

IQAMAH

After Adhan when the Muslims are assembled at the place of worship, a second call (Iqamah) is recited by one of the group. This signals the start of the congregational Salah. It is similar to Adhan except that it is recited faster but in a lower tone and these sentences are recited after HAYYA 'ALAL FALAH:

QAD QAMATIS SALAH

The prayer has begun

QAD QAMATIS SALAH

The prayer has begun.

Monday, December 10, 2012

Chapter II

TAHARAH

Before a person can say his prayer, he must be clean and pure. The Qur'an says: "Truly Allah loves those who turn to Him and those who care for cleanliness". Cleanliness of mind, of body, and of clothes is called Taharah or purification. It is only in such a condition of purification that a Muslim may perform the Salah. Purification of the body is attained by partial or total washing with clean water. The partial wash is known as Al-Wudu or the ablution, and the total wash is called Al-Ghusl or the washing (bath) of the whole body.

Al-Wudu

The process of performing Wudu is as follows:

Mention the name of Allah by saying "Bismilla-Hir-Rahma-Nir-Rah'im" (in the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful).

Wash both hands up to the wrists together three times, ensuring that every part including between the fingers is wetted by water as shown in figures 1, (a) and (b).

Taking a handful of water into the mouth, rinse the mouth three times as shown in figure 2.

Snuff water contained in the right palm into the nose and then eject the water with the left hand (thrice) - as shown in figures 3 and 4.

Wash the face, ear to ear, forehead to chin, three times as shown in figures 5, 6 and 7.

Wash the right arm thoroughly from the wrist to the elbow three times. Repeat the same with the left hand - as shown in figures 8 and 9.

Run moistened hands over the head from forehead to the back and back to forehead (once) - as in figures 10, 11 and 12.

Run moistened fingers through the ears, the first finger of each hand going across the inside of the corresponding ear, while the thumb runs across the outside (once) - as shown in figure 13.

Wash both feet up to the ankles starting from the right and ensuring that all parts particularly between the toes are wetted - as shown in figure 14. If you had performed complete "Wudu" before putting on your socks or stockings, it is not necessary to remove them when you want to repeat the performance of "Wudu". It is enough to wipe over the stockinged feet with wet hands. This may be done for a period of one day, (and three days on journey) on the condition that the socks or stockings are never removed.

If they are removed, it is necessary to re-wash the feet for Wudu. The process ends with the recitation of the Kalimatus-Shahadah.

ASH-HADU ALLA ILAHA ILLALLAHU WA-ASH-HADU AN-NA MUHAMMADAN 'ABDUHU-WA-RASULUH

A fresh performance of Wudu is necessary if one breaks wind, touches genitals, or becomes sexually excited, or pays a visit to the lavatory, or falls into sleep lying down, or vomits violently, or incurs a flow of blood from an injury, or a flow of impure fluid.

AL-GHUSL (THE WASHING OR BATH)

The greater purification, Ghusl, is obligatory when one is defiled as a result of nocturnal emission (or a wet dream), marital intercourse, child birth, or when entering into the fold of Islam.

The procedure is as follows:

Begin with the name of Allah as for Wudu. Wash the hands and the affected parts of the body with water to remove any impurity. Perform Wudu as above. Then wash the whole body three times, using clean water for each wash.

TAYAMMUM(DRY ABLUTION)

On certain occasions, it may become either impossible (eg. when water cannot be found or just enough for drinking is available), or it is dangerous, because of illness, to use water for Wudu or Ghusl. In such situations, Tayammum (dry ablution) is performed. The procedure:

Begin with the name of Allah. Strike both palms on sand, or anything containing sand or dust, like a wall or a stone etc. Pass the palms of the hands over the face once. Strike the sand etc., again with the palms. Rub the right hand with the left palm from the wrist to the elbow and similarly for the left hand with the right palm. Finish with the Kalimatus-Shahadah as for Wudu.
DIRECTION OF KA'BAH FROM VARIOUS CITIES

CHAPTER I

`IBADAH

The word 'Ibadah comes from the Arabic "Abd", which means slave or servant. Man is a born subject and servant of Allah. When he turns to Allah with humility and devotion, he performs an act of `Ibadah. `Ibadah is a means for purifying man's physical and spiritual life. In Islam, every good deed performed to seek the pleasure of Allah is an act of worship.

The obligatory rituals of `Ibadah are prayers (Salah), fasting (Saum), Zakah, pilgrimage (Hajj), and struggling in the ways of Allah (Jehad). These along with Iman are often called the pillars of Islam. Islam is an integral whole. It covers all aspects of man's life. The pillars unite all human activities, spiritual and material, individual and collective.

The obligatory rituals of `Ibadah make "faith" (Iman) to play a practical and effective role in the human life. `Ibadah is therefore something positive. It is the means by which the faithfuls can serve Allah as well as their fellow men.

The Salah, which is the subject of this booklet, is an essential part of 'Ibadah. The Prophet (S.A.W.) is reported to have said: "Salah is the pillar of Islam and whosoever abandons it, demolishes the very pillar of religion".

Friday, November 16, 2012

Muslim Spain (711-1492)

Islamic Spain was a multi-cultural mix of the people of three great monotheistic religions: Muslims, Christians, and Jews.

Although Christians and Jews lived under restrictions, for much of the time the three groups managed to get along together, and to some extent, to benefit from the presence of each other.

It brought a degree of civilisation to Europe that matched the heights of the Roman Empire and the Italian Renaissance.

Outline

In 711 Muslim forces invaded and in seven years conquered the Iberian peninsula.

It became one of the great Muslim civilisations; reaching its summit with the Umayyad caliphate of Cordovain the tenth century.

Muslim rule declined after that and ended in 1492 when Granada was conquered.

The heartland of Muslim rule was Southern Spain or Andulusia.

Periods

Muslim Spain was not a single period, but a succession of different rules.
  • The Dependent Emirate (711-756)
  • The Independent Emirate (756-929)
  • The Caliphate (929-1031)
  • The Almoravid Era (1031-1130)
  • Decline (1130-1492)
Audio journey

The Alhambra Palace, the finest surviving palace of Muslim Spain, is the beginning of a historical journey in this audio feature, In the Footsteps of Muhammad: Granada.

Conquest

The conquest

The traditional story is that in the year 711, an oppressed Christian chief, Julian, went to Musa ibn Nusair, the governor of North Africa, with a plea for help against the tyrannical Visigoth ruler of Spain, Roderick.

Musa responded by sending the young general Tariq bin Ziyad with an army of 7000 troops. The name Gibraltar is derived from Jabal At-Tariq which is Arabic for 'Rock of Tariq' named after the place where the Muslim army landed.

The story of the appeal for help is not universally accepted. There is no doubt that Tariq invaded Spain, but the reason for it may have more to do with the Muslim drive to enlarge their territory.

The Muslim army defeated the Visigoth army easily, and Roderick was killed in battle.

After the first victory, the Muslims conquered most of Spain and Portugal with little difficulty, and in fact with little opposition. By 720 Spain was largely under Muslim (or Moorish, as it was called) control.

Reasons

One reason for the rapid Muslim success was the generous surrender terms that they offered the people, which contrasted with the harsh conditions imposed by the previous Visigoth rulers.

The ruling Islamic forces were made up of different nationalities, and many of the forces were converts with uncertain motivation, so the establishment of a coherent Muslim state was not easy.

Andalusia

The heartland of Muslim rule was Southern Spain or Andulusia. The name Andalusia comes from the term Al-Andalus used by the Arabs, derived from the Vandals who had been settled in the region.

A Golden Age

Stability

Stability in Muslim Spain came with the establishment of the Andalusian Umayyad dynasty, which lasted from 756 to 1031.

The credit goes to Amir Abd al-Rahman, who founded the Emirate of Cordoba, and was able to get the various different Muslim groups who had conquered Spain to pull together in ruling it.

The Golden Age

The Muslim period in Spain is often described as a 'golden age' of learning where libraries, colleges, public baths were established and literature, poetry and architecture flourished. Both Muslims and non-Muslims made major contributions to this flowering of culture.

A Golden Age of religious tolerance?

Islamic Spain is sometimes described as a 'golden age' of religious and ethnic tolerance and interfaith harmony between Muslims, Christians and Jews.

Some historians believe this idea of a golden age is false and might lead modern readers to believe, wrongly, that Muslim Spain was tolerant by the standards of 21st century Britain.

The true position is more complicated. The distinguished historian Bernard Lewis wrote that the status of non-Muslims in Islamic Spain was a sort of second-class citizenship but he went on to say:

Second-class citizenship, though second class, is a kind of citizenship. It involves some rights, though not all, and is surely better than no rights at all...

...A recognized status, albeit one of inferiority to the dominant group, which is established by law, recognized by tradition, and confirmed by popular assent, is not to be despised.

Bernard Lewis, The Jews of Islam, 1984

Life for non-Muslims in Islamic Spain

Jews and Christians did retain some freedom under Muslim rule, providing they obeyed certain rules. Although these rules would now be considered completely unacceptable, they were not much of a burden by the standards of the time, and in many ways the non-Muslims of Islamic Spain (at least before 1050) were treated better than conquered peoples might have expected during that period of history.

  • they were not forced to live in ghettoes or other special locations
  • they were not slaves
  • they were not prevented from following their faith
  • they were not forced to convert or die under Muslim rule
  • they were not banned from any particular ways of earning a living; they often took on jobs shunned by Muslims;
    • these included unpleasant work such as tanning and butchery
    • but also pleasant jobs such as banking and dealing in gold and silver
  • they could work in the civil service of the Islamic rulers
  • Jews and Christians were able to contribute to society and culture

The alternative view to the Golden Age of Tolerance is that Jews and Christians were severely restricted in Muslim Spain, by being forced to live in a state of 'dhimmitude'. (A dhimmi is a non-Muslim living in an Islamic state who is not a slave, but does not have the same rights as a Muslim living in the same state.)

In Islamic Spain, Jews and Christians were tolerated if they :

  • acknowledged Islamic superiority
  • accepted Islamic power
  • paid a tax called Jizya to the Muslim rulers and sometimes paid higher rates of other taxes
  • avoided blasphemy
  • did not try to convert Muslims
  • complied with the rules laid down by the authorities. These included:
    • restrictions on clothing and the need to wear a special badge
    • restrictions on building synagogues and churches
    • not allowed to carry weapons
    • could not receive an inheritance from a Muslim
    • could not bequeath anything to a Muslim
    • could not own a Muslim slave
    • a dhimmi man could not marry a Muslim woman (but the reverse was acceptable)
    • a dhimmi could not give evidence in an Islamic court
    • dhimmis would get lower compensation than Muslims for the same injury

At times there were restrictions on practicing one's faith too obviously. Bell-ringing or chanting too loudly were frowned on and public processions were restricted.

Many Christians in Spain assimilated parts of the Muslim culture. Some learned Arabic, some adopted the same clothes as their rulers (some Christian women even started wearing the veil); some took Arabic names. Christians who did this were known as Mozarabs.

The Muslim rulers didn't give their non-Muslim subjects equal status; as Bat Ye'or has stated, the non-Muslims came definitely at the bottom of society.

Society was sharply divided along ethnic and religious lines, with the Arab tribes at the top of the hierarchy, followed by the Berbers who were never recognized as equals, despite their Islamization; lower in the scale came the mullawadun converts and, at the very bottom, the dhimmi Christians and Jews.

Bat Ye'or, Islam and Dhimmitude, 2002

The Muslims did not explicitly hate or persecute the non-Muslims. As Bernard Lewis puts it:

in contrast to Christian anti-Semitism, the Muslim attitude toward non-Muslims is one not of hate or fear or envy but simply of contempt

Bernard Lewis, The Jews of Islam, 1984

An example of this contempt is found in this 12th century ruling:

A Muslim must not massage a Jew or a Christian nor throw away his refuse nor clean his latrines. The Jew and the Christian are better fitted for such trades, since they are the trades of those who are vile.

12th Century ruling

Why were non-Muslims tolerated in Islamic Spain?

There were several reasons why the Muslim rulers tolerated rival faiths:
  • Judaism and Christianity were monotheistic faiths, so arguably their members were worshipping the same God
    • despite having some wayward beliefs and practices, such as the failure to accept the significance of Muhammad and the Qur'an
  • The Christians outnumbered the Muslims
    • so mass conversion or mass execution was not practical
    • outlawing or controlling the beliefs of so many people would have been massively expensive
  • Bringing non-Muslims into government provided the rulers with administrators
    • who were loyal (because not attached to any of the various Muslim groups)
    • who could be easily disciplined or removed if the need arose. (One Emir went so far as to have a Christian as the head of his bodyguard.)
  • Passages in the Qur'an said that Christians and Jews should be tolerated if they obeyed certain rules
Oppression in later Islamic Spain

Not all the Muslim rulers of Spain were tolerant. Almanzor looted churches and imposed strict restrictions.

The position of non-Muslims in Spain deteriorated substantially from the middle of the 11th century as the rulers became more strict and Islam came under greater pressure from outside.

Christians were not allowed taller houses than Muslims, could not employ Muslim servants, and had to give way to Muslims on the street.

Christians could not display any sign of their faith outside, not even carrying a Bible. There were persecutions and executions.

One notorious event was a pogrom in Granada in 1066, and this was followed by further violence and discrimination as the Islamic empire itself came under pressure.

As the Islamic empire declined, and more territory was taken back by Christian rulers, Muslims in Christian areas found themselves facing similar restrictions to those they had formerly imposed on others.

But, on the whole, the lot of minority faith groups was to become worse after Islam was replaced in Spain by Christianity.

There were also cultural alliances, particularly in the architecture - the 12 lions in the court of Alhambra are heralds of Christian influences.

The mosque at Cordoba, now converted to a cathedral is still, somewhat ironically, known as La Mezquita or literally, the mosque.

The mosque was begun at the end of the 8th century by the Ummayyad prince Abd al Rahman ibn Muawiyah.

Under the reign of Abd al Rahman III (r. 912-961) Spanish Islam reached its greatest power as, every May, campaigns were launched towards the Christian frontier, this was also the cultural peak of Islamic civilisation in Spain.

Cordoba

Cordoba

In the 10th century, Cordoba, the capital of Umayyad Spain, was unrivalled in both East and the West for its wealth and civilisation. One author wrote about Cordoba:

there were half a million inhabitants, living in 113,000 houses. There were 700 mosques and 300 public baths spread throughout the city and its twenty-one suburbs. The streets were paved and lit...There were bookshops and more than seventy libraries.

Muslim scholars served as a major link in bringing Greek philosophy, of which the Muslims had previously been the main custodians, to Western Europe.

There were interchanges and alliances between Muslim and Christian rulers such as the legendary Spanish warrior El-Cid, who fought both against and alongside Muslims.

Muslim, Jewish and Christian interaction

How did Muslims, Jews and Christians interact in practice? Was this period of apparent tolerance underpinned by a respect for each other's sacred texts? What led to the eventual collapse of Cordoba and Islamic Spain? And are we guilty of over-romanticising this period as a golden age of co-existence?

Three contributors discuss these questions with Melvyn Bragg. They are: Tim Winter, a convert to Islam and lecturer in Islamic Studies at the Faculty of Divinity at Cambridge University; Martin Palmer, an Anglican lay preacher and theologian and author of The Sacred History of Britain; and Mehri Niknam, Executive Director of the Maimonides Foundation, a joint Jewish-Muslim Interfaith Foundation in London.

Decline and fall

Decline and fall

The collapse of Islamic rule in Spain was due not only to increasing aggression on the part of Christian states, but to divisions among the Muslim rulers. The rot came from both the centre and the extremities.

Early in the eleventh century, the single Islamic Caliphate had shattered into a score of small kingdoms, ripe for picking-off. The first big Islamic centre to fall to Christianity was Toledo in 1085.

The Muslims replied with forces from Africa which under the general Yusuf bin Tashfin defeated the Christians resoundingly in 1086, and by 1102 had recaptured most of Andalusia. The general was able to reunite much of Muslim Spain.

Revival

It didn't last. Yusuf died in 1106, and, as one historian puts it, the "rulers of Muslim states began cutting each other's throats again".

Internal rebellions in 1144 and 1145 further shattered Islamic unity, and despite intermittent military successes, Islam's domination of Spain was ended for good.

The Muslims finally lost all power in Spain in 1492. By 1502 the Christian rulers issued an order requiring all Muslims to convert to Christianity, and when this didn't work, they imposed brutal restrictions on the remaining Spanish Muslims.

Sunday, October 21, 2012

Fiqh

Fiqh (Arabic) is Islamic jurisprudence. Fiqh is an expansion of the code of conduct (Sharia) expounded in the Quran, often supplemented by tradition (Sunnah) and implemented by the rulings and interpretations of Islamic jurists.

Fiqh deals with the observance of rituals, morals and social legislation in Islam. There are four prominent schools (madh'hab) of fiqh within Sunni practice and two within Shi'a practice. A person trained in fiqh is known as a Faqih (plural Fuqaha).

Etymology

The word fiqh is an Arabic term meaning "deep understanding" or "full comprehension". Technically it refers to the body of Islamic law extracted from detailed Islamic sources (which are studied in the principles of Islamic jurisprudence) and the process of gaining knowledge of Islam through jurisprudence. The historian Ibn Khaldun describes fiqh as "knowledge of the rules of God which concern the actions of persons who own themselves bound to obey the law respecting what is required (wajib), sinful (haraam), recommended (mandūb), disapproved (makrūh) or neutral (mubah)". This definition is consistent amongst the jurists.

In Modern Standard Arabic, fiqh has come to mean jurisprudence in general, be it Islamic or secular. It is thus possible to speak of Chief Justice John G. Roberts, Jr. as an expert in the common law fiqh of the United States, or of Farouk Sultan as an expert in the civil law fiqh of Egypt.

Introduction

The Qur'an gives clear instruction on many issues, such as how to perform the ritual purification (Arabic: wudu) before the obligatory daily prayers (Arabic: salat), but on other issues, some Muslims believe the Qur'an alone is not enough to make things clear. For example the Qur'an states one needs to engage in daily prayers (Arabic: salat) and fast (Arabic: sawm) during the month of Ramadan but some Muslims believe they need further instructions on how to perform these duties. Details about these issues can be found in the traditions of Islamic prophet Muhammad (Arabic: Sunnah), so Qur'an and Sunnah are in most cases the basis for (Arabic: Shariah).

With regard to some topics the Qur'an and Sunnah are silent. In those cases the Muslim jurists (Arabic: Fuqaha) try to arrive at conclusions by other means. Sunni jurists use analogy (Arabic: Qiyas) and historical consensus of the community (Arabic: Ijma). The conclusions arrived at with the aid of these additional tools constitute a wider array of laws than the Sharia consists of, and is called fiqh. Thus, in contrast to the sharia, fiqh is not regarded as sacred and the schools of thought have differing views on its details, without viewing other conclusions as sacrilegious. This division of interpretation in more detailed issues has resulted in different schools of thought (Arabic: madh'hab).

This wider concept of Islamic jurisprudence is the source of a range of laws in different topics that govern the lives of the Muslims in all facets of everyday life.
Muslim

A Muslim, also spelled Moslem, is an adherent of Islam, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the Qur'an—which Muslims consider the verbatim word of God as revealed to prophet Muhammad—and, with lesser authority than the Qur'an, the teachings and practices of Muhammad as recorded in traditional accounts, called hadith. "Muslim" is an Arabic word meaning "one who submits to God".

Muslims believe that God is eternal, transcendent, absolutely one (the doctrine of tawhid, or strict or simple monotheism), and incomparable; that he is self-sustaining, who begets not nor was begotten. Muslim beliefs regarding God are summed up in chapter 112 of the Qur'an, al-Ikhlas, "the chapter of purity". Muslims also believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed at many times and places before, including through the prophets Abraham, Moses and Isa a.s. Muslims maintain that previous messages and revelations have been partially changed or corrupted over time, but consider the Qur'an to be both unaltered and the final revelation from God—Final Testament.

Most Muslims accept as a Muslim anyone who has publicly pronounced the Shahadah (declaration of faith) which states, "I testify that there is no god except for the God [Allah], and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God." Their basic religious practices are enumerated in the Five Pillars of Islam, which, in addition to Shahadah, consist of daily prayers (salat), fasting during Ramadan (sawm), almsgiving (zakat), and the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) at least once in a lifetime.

Etymology

The word muslim is the participle of the same verb of which islām is the infinitive, based on the triliteral S-L-M "to be whole, intact". A female adherent is a muslima . The plural form in Arabic is muslimūn, and its feminine equivalent is muslimāt. The Arabic form muslimun is the stem IV participle of the triliteral S-L-M.

Other words for Muslim

The ordinary word in English is "Muslim". It is sometimes transliterated as "Moslem", which is an older spelling. The word Mosalman (Persian:‎) is a common equivalent for Muslim used in Central Asia.

Until at least the mid-1960s, many English-language writers used the term Mohammedans or Mahometans. Although such terms were not necessarily intended to be pejorative, Muslims argue that the terms are offensive because they allegedly imply that Muslims worship Muhammad rather than God.

Used to describe earlier prophets in the Qur'an

The Qur'an describes many prophets and messengers as well as their respective followers as Muslim: Adam, Noah, Abraham, Jacob, Moses and Isa and his apostles are all considered to be Muslims in the Qur'an. The Qur'an states that these men were Muslims because they submitted to God, preached His message and upheld His values, which included praying, charity, fasting and pilgrimage. Thus, in Surah 3:52 of the Qur'an, Jesus’ disciples tell Jesus, "We believe in God; and you be our witness that we are Muslims (wa-shahad be anna muslimūn)." In Muslim belief, before the Qur'an, God had given the Torah to Moses, the Psalms to David and the Gospel to Jesus, who are all considered important Muslim prophets.

Sunday, October 7, 2012

Sociology

Sociology is the systematic study of society and human social action. The meaning of the word comes from the suffix "-ology" which means "study of," derived from Greek, and the stem "soci-" which is from the Latin word socius, meaning "companion", or society in general.

Sociology was originally established by Auguste Comte (1798–1857) in 1838. Comte endeavoured to unify history, psychology and economics through the descriptive understanding of the social realm. He proposed that social ills could be remedied through sociological positivism, an epistemological approach outlined in The Course in Positive Philosophy [1830–1842] and A General View of Positivism (1844). Though Comte is generally regarded as the "Father of Sociology", the discipline was formally established by another French thinker, Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), who developed positivism as a foundation to practical social research. Durkheim set up the first European department of sociology at the University of Bordeaux in 1895, publishing his Rules of the Sociological Method. In 1896, he established the journal L'Année Sociologique. Durkheim's seminal monograph, Suicide (1897), a case study of suicide rates amongst Catholic and Protestant populations, distinguished sociological analysis from psychology or philosophy.

Karl Marx rejected Comtean positivism but nevertheless aimed to establish a science of society based on historical materialism, becoming recognised as a founding figure of sociology posthumously as the term gained broader meaning. At the turn of the 20th century, the first wave of German sociologists, including Max Weber and Georg Simmel, developed sociological antipositivism. The field may be broadly recognised as an amalgam of three modes of social thought in particular: Durkheimian positivism and structural functionalism; Marxist historical materialism and conflict theory; Weberian antipositivism and verstehen analysis. American sociology broadly arose on a separate trajectory, with little Marxist influence, an emphasis on rigorous experimental methodology, and a closer association with pragmatism and social psychology. In the 1920s, the Chicago school developed symbolic interactionism. Meanwhile in the 1930s, the Frankfurt School pioneered the idea of critical theory, an interdisciplinary form of Marxist sociology drawing upon thinkers as diverse as Sigmund Freud and Friedrich Nietzsche. Critical theory would take on something of a life of its own after World War II, influencing literary criticism and the Birmingham School establishment of cultural studies.

Sociology evolved as an academic response to the challenges of modernity, such as industrialization, urbanization, secularization, and a perceived process of enveloping rationalization. Because sociology is such a broad discipline, it can be difficult to define, even for professional sociologists. The field generally concerns the social rules and processes that bind and separate people not only as individuals, but as members of associations, groups, communities and institutions, and includes the examination of the organization and development of human social life. The sociological field of interest ranges from the analysis of short contacts between anonymous individuals on the street to the study of global social processes. In the terms of sociologists Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann, social scientists seek an understanding of the Social Construction of Reality. Most sociologists work in one or more subfields. One useful way to describe the discipline is as a cluster of sub-fields that examine different dimensions of society. For example, social stratification studies inequality and class structure; demography studies changes in a population size or type; criminology examines criminal behavior and deviance; and political sociology studies the interaction between society and state.

Since its inception, sociological epistemologies, methods, and frames of enquiry, have significantly expanded and diverged. Sociologists use a diversity of research methods, drawing upon either empirical techniques or critical theory. Common modern methods include case studies, historical research, interviewing, participant observation, social network analysis, survey research, statistical analysis, and model building, among other approaches. Since the late 1970s, many sociologists have tried to make the discipline useful for non-academic purposes. The results of sociological research aid educators, lawmakers, administrators, developers, and others interested in resolving social problems and formulating public policy, through subdisciplinary areas such as evaluation research, methodological assessment, and public sociology. New sociological sub-fields continue to appear - such as community studies, computational sociology, environmental sociology, network analysis, actor-network theory and a growing list, many of which are cross-disciplinary in nature.
Political science

Political science is an academic and research discipline that deals with the theory and practice of politics and the description and analysis of political systems and political behavior. Fields and subfields of political science include positive political economy, political theory and philosophy, civics and comparative politics, theory of direct democracy, apolitical governance, participatory direct democracy, national systems, cross-national political analysis, political development, international relations, foreign policy, international law, politics, public administration, administrative behavior, public law, judicial behavior, and public policy. Political science also studies power in international relations and the theory of Great powers and Superpowers.

Political science is methodologically diverse, although recent years have witnessed an upsurge in the use of the scientific method. That is the proliferation of formal-deductive model building and quantitative hypothesis testing. Approaches to the discipline include rational choice, classical political philosophy, interpretivism, structuralism, and behavioralism, realism, pluralism, and institutionalism. Political science, as one of the social sciences, uses methods and techniques that relate to the kinds of inquiries sought: primary sources such as historical documents, interviews, and official records, as well as secondary sources such as scholarly journal articles are used in building and testing theories. Empirical methods include survey research, statistical analysis/econometrics, case studies, experiments, and model building. Herbert Baxter Adams is credited with coining the phrase "political science" while teaching history at Johns Hopkins University.
Social Economics

Economics is a social science that seeks to analyze and describe the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth. The word "economics" is from the Greek οἶκος [oikos], "family, household, estate," and νόμος [nomos], "custom, law," and hence means "household management" or "management of the state." An economist is a person using economic concepts and data in the course of employment, or someone who has earned a university degree in the subject. The classic brief definition of economics, set out by Lionel Robbins in 1932, is "the science which studies human behavior as a relation between scarce means having alternative uses." Without scarcity and alternative uses, there is no economic problem. Briefer yet is "the study of how people seek to satisfy needs and wants" and "the study of the financial aspects of human behavior."

Economics has two broad branches: microeconomics, where the unit of analysis is the individual agent, such as a household or firm, and macroeconomics, where the unit of analysis is an economy as a whole. Another division of the subject distinguishes positive economics, which seeks to predict and explain economic phenomena, from normative economics, which orders choices and actions by some criterion; such orderings necessarily involve subjective value judgments. Since the early part of the 20th century, economics has focused largely on measurable quantities, employing both theoretical models and empirical analysis. Quantitative models, however, can be traced as far back as the physiocratic school. Economic reasoning has been increasingly applied in recent decades to other social situations such as politics, law, psychology, history, religion, marriage and family life, and other social interactions. This paradigm crucially assumes that resources are scarce because they are not sufficient to satisfy all wants, and that "economic value" is willingness to pay as revealed for instance by market (arms' length) transactions. Rival heterodox schools of thought, such as institutional economics, green economics, Marxist economics, and economic sociology, make other grounding assumptions. For example, Marxist economics assumes that economics primarily deals with the exchange of value, and that labor (human effort) is the source of all value.

The expanding domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism.

Education

Education encompasses teaching and learning specific skills, and also something less tangible but more profound: the imparting of knowledge, positive judgement and well-developed wisdom. Education has as one of its fundamental aspects the imparting of culture from generation to generation (see socialization). To educate means 'to draw out', from the Latin educare, or to facilitate the realization of an individual's potential and talents. It is an application of pedagogy, a body of theoretical and applied research relating to teaching and learning and draws on many disciplines such as psychology, philosophy, computer science, linguistics, neuroscience, sociology and anthropology.

The education of an individual human begins at birth and continues throughout life. (Some believe that education begins even before birth, as evidenced by some parents' playing music or reading to the baby in the womb in the hope it will influence the child's development.) For some, the struggles and triumphs of daily life provide far more instruction than does formal schooling (thus Mark Twain's admonition to "never let school interfere with your education"). Family members may have a profound educational effect — often more profound than they realize — though family teaching may function very informally.
Social science history

The history of the social sciences begins in the Age of Enlightenment after 1650, which saw a revolution within natural philosophy, changing the basic framework by which individuals understood what was "scientific". Social sciences came forth from the moral philosophy of the time and was influenced by the Age of Revolutions, such as the Industrial revolution and the French revolution. The social sciences developed from the sciences (experimental and applied), or the systematic knowledge-bases or prescriptive practices, relating to the social improvement of a .

The beginnings of the social sciences in the 18th century are reflected in various grand encyclopedia of Diderot, with articles from Rousseau and other pioneers. The growth of the social sciences is also reflected in other specialized encyclopedias. The modern period saw "social science" first used as a distinct conceptual field. Social science was influenced by positivism, focusing on knowledge based on actual positive sense experience and avoiding the negative; metaphysical speculation was avoided. Auguste Comte used the term "science social" to describe the field, taken from the ideas of Charles Fourier; Comte also referred to the field as social physics.

Following this period, there were five paths of development that sprang forth in the Social Sciences, influenced by Comte on other fields. One route that was taken was the rise of social research. Large statistical surveys were undertaken in various parts of the United States and Europe. Another route undertaken was initiated by Émile Durkheim, studying "social facts", and Vilfredo Pareto, opening metatheoretical ideas and individual theories. A third means developed, arising from the methodological dichotomy present, in which the social phenomena was identified with and understood; this was championed by figures such as Max Weber. The fourth route taken, based in economics, was developed and furthered economic knowledge as a hard science. The last path was the correlation of knowledge and social values; the antipositivism and verstehen sociology of Max Weber firmly demanded on this distinction. In this route, theory (description) and prescription were non-overlapping formal discussions of a subject.

Around the turn of the 20th century, Enlightenment philosophy was challenged in various quarters. After the use of classical theories since the end of the scientific revolution, various fields substituted mathematics studies for experimental studies and examining equations to build a theoretical structure. The development of social science subfields became very quantitative in methodology. The interdisciplinary and cross-disciplinary nature of scientific inquiry into human behavior, social and environmental factors affecting it, made many of the natural sciences interested in some aspects of social science methodology. Examples of boundary blurring include emerging disciplines like social research of medicine, sociobiology, neuropsychology, bioeconomics and the history and sociology of science. Increasingly, quantitative research and qualitative methods are being integrated in the study of human action and its implications and consequences. In the first half of the 20th century, statistics became a free-standing discipline of applied mathematics. Statistical methods were used confidently.

In the contemporary period, Karl Popper and Talcott Parsons influenced the furtherance of the social sciences. Researchers continue to search for a unified consensus on what methodology might have the power and refinement to connect a proposed "grand theory" with the various midrange theories which, with considerable success, continue to provide usable frameworks for massive, growing data banks; for more, see consilience. At present though, the various realms of social science progress in a myriad of ways, increasing the overall knowledge of society. The social sciences will for the foreseeable future be composed of different zones in the research of, and sometime distinct in approach toward, the field.

The term "social science" may refer either to the specific sciences of society established by thinkers such as Comte, Durkheim, Marx, and Weber, or more generally to all disciplines outside of "noble science" and arts. By the late 19th century, the academic social sciences were constituted of five fields: jurisprudence and amendment of the law, education, health, economy and trade, and art.

At the turn of the 21st century, the expanding domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism. Branches of social science

The Social Science disciplines are branches of knowledge which are taught and researched at the college or university level. Social Science disciplines are defined and recognized by the academic journals in which research is published, and the learned Social Science societies and academic departments or faculties to which their practitioners belong. Social Science fields of study usually have several sub-disciplines or branches, and the distinguishing lines between these are often both arbitrary and ambiguous.

Anthropology

Anthropology is the holistic "science of man," - a science of the totality of human existence. The discipline deals with the integration of different aspects of the Social Sciences, Humanities, and Human Biology. In the twentieth century, academic disciplines have often been institutionally divided into three broad domains. The natural sciences seek to derive general laws through reproducible and verifiable experiments. The humanities generally study local traditions, through their history, literature, music, and arts, with an emphasis on understanding particular individuals, events, or eras. The social sciences have generally attempted to develop scientific methods to understand social phenomena in a generalizable way, though usually with methods distinct from those of the natural sciences.

The anthropological social sciences often develop nuanced descriptions rather than the general laws derived in physics or chemistry, or they may explain individual cases through more general principles, as in many fields of psychology. Anthropology (like some fields of history) does not easily fit into one of these categories, and different branches of anthropology draw on one or more of these domains. Within the United States, Anthropology is divided into four sub-fields:Archaeology, Physical or Biological Anthropology, Anthropological Linguistics, and Cultural Anthropology. It is an area that is offered at most undergraduate institutions. The word anthropos (άνθρωπος) is from the Greek for "human being" or "person." Eric Wolf described sociocultural anthropology as "the most scientific of the humanities, and the most humanistic of the sciences."

The goal of anthropology is to provide a holistic account of humans and human nature. This means that, though anthropologists generally specialize in only one sub-field, they always keep in mind the biological, linguistic, historic and cultural aspects of any problem. Since anthropology arose as a science in Western societies that were complex and industrial, a major trend within anthropology has been a methodological drive to study peoples in societies with more simple social organization, sometimes called "primitive" in anthropological literature, but without any connotation of "inferior." Today, anthropologists use terms such as "less complex" societies or refer to specific modes of subsistence or production, such as "pastoralist" or "forager" or "horticulturalist" to refer to humans living in non-industrial, non-Western cultures, such people or folk (ethnos) remaining of great interest within anthropology.

The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a people in detail, using biogenetic, archaeological, and linguistic data alongside direct observation of contemporary customs. In the 1990s and 2000s, calls for clarification of what constitutes a culture, of how an observer knows where his or her own culture ends and another begins, and other crucial topics in writing anthropology were heard. It is possible to view all human cultures as part of one large, evolving global culture. These dynamic relationships, between what can be observed on the ground, as opposed to what can be observed by compiling many local observations remain fundamental in any kind of anthropology, whether cultural, biological, linguistic or archaeological.

Tuesday, September 11, 2012

History and philosophy

History

Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era, and in many historical civilizations, but modern science is so distinct in its approach and successful in its results that it now defines what science is in the strictest sense of the term. Much earlier than the modern era, another important turning point was the development of the classical natural philosophy in the ancient Greek-speaking world.

Pre-philosophical

Science in its original sense is a word for a type of knowledge (Latin scientia, Ancient Greek epistemē), rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In particular it is one of the types of knowledge which people can communicate to each other and share. For example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thinking, as shown by the construction of complex calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible, and buildings such as the pyramids. However no consistent distinction was made between knowledge of such things which are true in every community, and other types of communal knowledge such as mythologies and legal systems.

Philosophical study of nature

Before the invention or discovery of the concept of "nature" (Ancient Greek phusis), by the Pre-Socratic philosophers, the same words tend to be used to describe the natural "way" in which a plant grows, and the "way" in which, for example, one tribe worships a particular god. For this reason it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense, and also the first people to clearly distinguish "nature" and "convention". Science was therefore distinguished as the knowledge of nature, and the things which are true for every community, and the name of the specialized pursuit of such knowledge was philosophy — the realm of the first philosopher-physicists. They were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature (artifice or technology, Greek technē) was seen by classical scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class artisans.

Philosophical turn to human things

A major turning point in the history of early philosophical science was the controversial but successful attempt by Socrates to apply philosophy to the study of human things, including human nature, the nature of political communities, and human knowledge itself. He criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative, and lacking in self-criticism. He was particularly concerned that some of the early physicists treated nature as if it could be assumed that it had no intelligent order, explaining things merely in terms of motion and matter.

The study of human things had been the realm of mythology and tradition, and Socrates was executed. Aristotle later created a less controversial systematic programme of Socratic philosophy, which was teleological, and human-centred. He rejected many of the conclusions of earlier scientists. For example in his physics the sun goes around the earth, and many things have it as part of their nature that they are for humans. Each thing has a formal cause and final cause and a role in the rational cosmic order. Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, according to what types of things they are. While the Socratics insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being, they did not argue for any other types of applied science.

Aristotle maintained the sharp distinction between science and the practical knowledge of artisans, treating theoretical speculation as the highest type of human activity, practical thinking about good living as something less lofty, and the knowledge of artisans as something only suitable for the lower classes. In contrast to modern science, Aristotle's influential emphasis was upon the "theoretical" steps of deducing universal rules from raw data, and did not treat the gathering of experience and raw data as part of science itself.

Medieval science

During late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the Aristotelian approach to inquiries on natural phenomenon was used. Some ancient knowledge was lost, or in some cases kept in obscurity, during the fall of the Roman Empire and periodic political struggles. However, the general fields of science, or Natural Philosophy as it was called, and much of the general knowledge from the ancient world remained preserved though the works of the early encyclopedists like Isidore of Seville. During the early medieval period, Syrian Christians from Eastern Europe such as Nestorians and Monophysites were the ones that translated much of the important Greek science texts from Greek to Syriac and the later on they translated many of the works into Arabic and other languages under Islamic rule. This was a major line of transmission for the development of Islamic science which provided much of the activity during the early medieval period. In the later medieval period, Europeans recovered some ancient knowledge by translations of texts and they built their work upon the knowledge of Aristotle, Ptolemy, Euclid, and others works. In Europe, men like Roger Bacon learned Arabic and Hebrew and argued for more experimental science. By the late Middle Ages, a synthesis of Catholicism and Aristotelianism known as Scholasticism was flourishing in Western Europe, which had become a new geographic center of science.

Renaissance, and early modern science

By the late Middle Ages, especially in Italy there was an influx of texts and scholars from the collapsing Byzantine empire. Copernicus formulated a heliocentric model of the solar system unlike the geocentric model of Ptolemy's Almagest. All aspects of scholasticism were criticized in the 15th and 16th centuries; one author who was notoriously persecuted was Galileo, who made innovative use of experiment and mathematics. However the persecution began after Pope Urban VIII blessed Galileo to write about the Copernican system. Galileo had used arguments from the Pope and put them in the voice of the simpleton in the work "Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems" which caused great offense to him.

In Northern Europe, the new technology of the printing press was widely used to publish many arguments including some that disagreed with church dogma. René Descartes and Francis Bacon published philosophical arguments in favor of a new type of non-Aristotelian science. Descartes argued that mathematics could be used in order to study nature, as Galileo had done, and Bacon emphasized the importance of experiment over contemplation. Bacon also argued that science should aim for the first time at practical inventions for the improvement of all human life.

Bacon questioned the Aristotelian concepts of formal cause and final cause, and promoted the idea that science should study the laws of "simple" natures, such as heat, rather than assuming that there is any specific nature, or "formal cause", of each complex type of thing. This new modern science began to see itself as describing "laws of nature". This updated approach to studies in nature was seen as mechanistic.

Age of Enlightenment

In the 17th and 18th centuries, the project of modernity, as had been promoted by Bacon and Descartes, led to rapid scientific advance and the successful development of a new type of natural science, mathematical, methodically experimental, and deliberately innovative. Newton and Leibniz succeeded in developing a new physics, now referred to as Newtonian physics, which could be confirmed by experiment and explained in mathematics. Leibniz also incorporated terms from Aristotelian physics, but now being used in a new non-teleological way, for example "energy" and "potential". But in the style of Bacon, he assumed that different types of things all work according to the same general laws of nature, with no special formal or final causes for each type of thing.

It is, during this period that the word science gradually became more commonly used to refer to the pursuit of a type of knowledge, and especially knowledge of nature — coming close in meaning to the old term "natural philosophy".

19th century

Both John Herschel and William Whewell systematised methodology: the latter coined the term scientist. When Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species he established descent with modification as the prevailing evolutionary explanation of biological complexity. His theory of natural selection provided a natural explanation of how species originated, but this only gained wide acceptance a century later. John Dalton developed the idea of atoms. The laws of Thermodynamics and the electromagnetic theory were also established in the 19th century, which raised new questions which could not easily be answered using Newton's framework.

20th century

Einstein's Theory of Relativity and the development of quantum mechanics led to the replacement of Newtonian physics with a new physics which contains two parts, that describe different types of events in nature. The extensive use of scientific innovation during the wars of this century, led to the space race and widespread public appreciation of the importance of modern science.

Philosophy of science

Working scientists usually take for granted a set of basic assumptions that are needed to justify a scientific method: that there is an objective reality shared by all rational observers; that this objective reality is governed by natural laws; that these laws can be discovered by means of systematic observation and experimentation. Philosophy of science seeks a deep understanding of what these underlying assumptions mean and whether they are valid. Most contributions to the philosophy of science have come from philosophers, who frequently view the beliefs of most scientists as superficial or naive—thus there is often a degree of antagonism between working scientists and philosophers of science.

The belief that all observers share a common reality is known as realism. It can be contrasted with anti-realism, the belief that there is no valid concept of absolute truth such that things that are true for one observer are true for all observers. The most commonly defended form of anti-realism is idealism, the belief that the mind or spirit is the most basic essence, and that each mind generates its own reality. In an idealistic world-view, what is true for one mind need not be true for other minds.

There are different schools of thought in philosophy of science. The most popular position is empiricism, which claims that knowledge is created by a process involving observation and that scientific theories are the result of generalizations from such observations. Empiricism generally encompasses inductivism, a position that tries to explain the way general theories can be justified by the finite number of observations humans can make and the hence finite amount of empirical evidence available to confirm scientific theories. This is necessary because the number of predictions those theories make is infinite, which means that they cannot be known from the finite amount of evidence using deductive logic only. Many versions of empiricism exist, with the predominant ones being bayesianism and the hypothetico-deductive method.

Empiricism has stood in contrast to rationalism, the position originally associated with Descartes, which holds that knowledge is created by the human intellect, not by observation. A significant twentieth century version of rationalism is critical rationalism, first defined by Austrian-British philosopher Karl Popper. Popper rejected the way that empiricism describes the connection between theory and observation. He claimed that theories are not generated by observation, but that observation is made in the light of theories and that the only way a theory can be affected by observation is when it comes in conflict with it. Popper proposed falsifiability as the landmark of scientific theories, and falsification as the empirical method, to replace verifiability and induction by purely deductive notions. Popper further claimed that there is actually only one universal method, and that this method is not specific to science: The negative method of criticism, trial and error. It covers all products of the human mind, including science, mathematics, philosophy, and art

Another approach, instrumentalism, colloquially termed "shut up and calculate", emphasizes the utility of theories as instruments for explaining and predicting phenomena. It claims that scientific theories are black boxes with only their input (initial conditions) and output (predictions) being relevant. Consequences, notions and logical structure of the theories are claimed to be something that should simply be ignored and that scientists shouldn't make a fuss about (see interpretations of quantum mechanics).

Finally, another approach often cited in debates of scientific skepticism against controversial movements like "scientific creationism", is methodological naturalism. Its main point is that a difference between natural and supernatural explanations should be made, and that science should be restricted methodologically to natural explanations. That the restriction is merely methodological (rather than ontological) means that science should not consider supernatural explanations itself, but should not claim them to be wrong either. Instead, supernatural explanations should be left a matter of personal belief outside the scope of science. Methodological naturalism maintains that proper science requires strict adherence to empirical study and independent verification as a process for properly developing and evaluating explanations for observable phenomena. The absence of these standards, arguments from authority, biased observational studies and other common fallacies are frequently cited by supporters of methodological naturalism as criteria for the dubious claims they criticize not to be true science.

Basic and applied research

Although some scientific research is applied research into specific problems, a great deal of our understanding comes from the curiosity-driven undertaking of basic research. This leads to options for technological advance that were not planned or sometimes even imaginable. This point was made by Michael Faraday when, allegedly in response to the question "what is the use of basic research?" he responded "Sir, what is the use of a new-born child?". For example, research into the effects of red light on the human eye's rod cells did not seem to have any practical purpose; eventually, the discovery that our night vision is not troubled by red light would lead search and rescue teams (among others) to adopt red light in the cockpits of jets and helicopters. In a nutshell: Basic research is the search for knowledge. Applied research is the search for solutions to practical problems using this knowledge. Finally, even basic research can take unexpected turns, and there is some sense in which the scientific method is built to harness luck.

Experimentation and hypothesizing

Based on observations of a phenomenon, scientists may generate a model. This is an attempt to describe or depict the phenomenon in terms of a logical, physical or mathematical representation. As empirical evidence is gathered, scientists can suggest a hypothesis to explain the phenomenon. Hypotheses may be formulated using principles such as parsimony (also known as "Occam's Razor") and are generally expected to seek consilience—fitting well with other accepted facts related to the phenomena. This new explanation is used to make falsifiable predictions that are testable by experiment or observation. When a hypothesis proves unsatisfactory, it is either modified or discarded. Experimentation is especially important in science to help establish causational relationships (to avoid the correlation fallacy). Operationalization also plays an important role in coordinating research in/across different fields.

Once a hypothesis has survived testing, it may become adopted into the framework of a scientific theory. This is a logically reasoned, self-consistent model or framework for describing the behavior of certain natural phenomena. A theory typically describes the behavior of much broader sets of phenomena than a hypothesis; commonly, a large number of hypotheses can be logically bound together by a single theory. Thus a theory is a hypothesis explaining various other hypotheses. In that vein, theories are formulated according to most of the same scientific principles as hypotheses.

While performing experiments, scientists may have a preference for one outcome over another, and so it is important to ensure that science as a whole can eliminate this bias. This can be achieved by careful experimental design, transparency, and a thorough peer review process of the experimental results as well as any conclusions. After the results of an experiment are announced or published, it is normal practice for independent researchers to double-check how the research was performed, and to follow up by performing similar experiments to determine how dependable the results might be.

Certainty and science

A scientific theory is empirical, and is always open to falsification if new evidence is presented. That is, no theory is ever considered strictly certain as science accepts the concept of fallibilism. The philosopher of science Karl Popper sharply distinguishes truth from certainty. He writes that scientific knowledge "consists in the search for truth", but it "is not the search for certainty ... All human knowledge is fallible and therefore uncertain." Although science values legitimate doubt, The Flat Earth Society is still widely regarded as an example of taking skepticism too far

New scientific knowledge very rarely results in vast changes in our understanding. According to psychologist Keith Stanovich, it may be the media's overuse of words like "breakthrough" that leads the public to imagine that science is constantly proving everything it thought was true to be false. While there are such famous cases as the theory of relativity that required a complete reconceptualization, these are extreme exceptions. Knowledge in science is gained by a gradual synthesis of information from different experiments, by various researchers, across different domains of science; it is more like a climb than a leap. Theories vary in the extent to which they have been tested and verified, as well as their acceptance in the scientific community. For example, heliocentric theory, the theory of evolution, and germ theory still bear the name "theory" even though, in practice, they are considered factual.

Philosopher Barry Stroud adds that, although the best definition for "knowledge" is contested, being skeptical and entertaining the possibility that one is incorrect is compatible with being correct. Ironically then, the scientist adhering to proper scientific method will doubt themselves even once they possess the truth. The fallibilist C. S. Peirce argued that inquiry is the struggle to resolve actual doubt and that merely quarrelsome, verbal, or hyperbolic doubt is fruitless—but also that the inquirer should try to attain genuine doubt rather than resting uncritically on common sense. He held that the successful sciences trust, not to any single chain of inference (no stronger than its weakest link), but to the cable of multiple and various arguments intimately connected.

Stanovich also asserts that science avoids searching for a "magic bullet"; it avoids the single-cause fallacy. This means a scientist would not ask merely "What is the cause of...", but rather "What are the most significant causes of...". This is especially the case in the more macroscopic fields of science (e.g. psychology, cosmology). Of course, research often analyzes few factors at once, but these are always added to the long list of factors that are most important to consider. For example: knowing the details of only a person's genetics, or their history and upbringing, or the current situation may not explain a behaviour, but a deep understanding of all these variables combined can be very predictive.
Science

Science (from Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge") is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. In an older and closely related meaning (found, for example, in Aristotle), "science" refers to the body of reliable knowledge itself, of the type that can be logically and rationally explained (see History and philosophy below). Since classical antiquity science as a type of knowledge was closely linked to philosophy. In the early modern era the words "science" and "philosophy" were sometimes used interchangeably in the English language. By the 17th century, natural philosophy (which is today called "natural science") was considered a separate branch of philosophy. However, "science" continued to be used in a broad sense denoting reliable knowledge about a topic, in the same way it is still used in modern terms such as library science or political science.

In modern use, "science" more often refers to a way of pursuing knowledge, not only the knowledge itself. It is "often treated as synonymous with 'natural and physical science', and thus restricted to those branches of study that relate to the phenomena of the material universe and their laws, sometimes with implied exclusion of pure mathematics. This is now the dominant sense in ordinary use." This narrower sense of "science" developed as scientists such as Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton began formulating laws of nature such as Newton's laws of motion. In this period it became more common to refer to natural philosophy as "natural science". Over the course of the 19th century, the word "science" became increasingly associated with scientific method, a disciplined way to study the natural world, including physics, chemistry, geology and biology. It is in the 19th century also that the term scientist was created by the naturalist-theologian William Whewell to distinguish those who sought knowledge on nature from those who sought knowledge on other disciplines. The Oxford English Dictionary dates the origin of the word "scientist" to 1834. This sometimes left the study of human thought and society in a linguistic limbo, which was resolved by classifying these areas of academic study as social science. Similarly, several other major areas of disciplined study and knowledge exist today under the general rubric of "science", such as formal science and applied science.

Monday, August 13, 2012

Cross Cultural Gift Giving Etiquette

Within the interdependent, global and multi-cultural marketplace of the 21st century, cross cultural differences in the approaches to and practices of business people across the world are important to learn.

A lack of cross cultural understanding can lead to misunderstandings which may result in offense. Cross cultural awareness and an understanding of foreign etiquette is important for today's globe trotting business person.

One area of importance in cross cultural awareness is in the different gift giving etiquettes of the world. Understanding gift giving and the etiquette surrounding it can help international business people cement better relationships with foreign colleagues, clients or customers.

Cross cultural gift giving etiquette involves considering the following points:

. Who is receiving the gift? Is it a person or a group? What is the status of the receiver(s)?

. What types of gifts are acceptable or unacceptable?

. What is the protocol associated with gift giving and receiving?

. Should gifts be reciprocated?

In many countries such as in North America or the UK, gift giving is rare in the business world. In fact, it may carry negative connotations as gift giving could be construed as bribery. However, in many other countries, gift giving and its etiquette have a central place in business practices.

In order to highlight some of the different aspects of cross cultural gift giving etiquette a few examples shall be presented.

Gift Giving Etiquette in China

. It is the proper etiquette for gifts to be exchanged for celebrations, as thanks for assistance and even as a sweetener for future favours.

. It is however important not to give gifts in the absence of a good reason or a witness.

. When the Chinese want to buy gifts it is not uncommon for them to ask what you would like.

. It would be wise to demonstrate an appreciation of Chinese culture by asking for items such as ink paintings or tea.

. Business gifts are always reciprocated. Not to do so is bad etiquette.

. When giving gifts do not give cash.

. Do not be too frugal with your choice of gift otherwise you will be seen as an 'iron rooster', i.e. getting a good gift out of you is like getting a feather out of an iron rooster.

. Depending on the item, avoid giving one of something. Chinese philosophy stresses harmony and balance, so give in pairs.

Gift Giving Etiquette in Japan

. Gift-giving is a central part of Japanese business etiquette.

. Bring a range of gifts for your trip so if you are presented with a gift you will be able to reciprocate.

. The emphasis in Japanese business culture is on the act of gift-giving not the gift itself.

. Expensive gifts are common.

. The best time to present a gift is at the end of your visit.

. A gift for an individual should be given in private.

. If you are presenting a gift to a group of people have them all present.

. The correct etiquette is to present/receive gifts with both hands.

. Before accepting a gift it is polite to refuse at least once or twice before accepting.

. Giving four or nine of anything is considered unlucky. Give in pairs if possible.

Gift Giving Etiquette in Saudi Arabia

. Gifts should only be given to the most intimate of friends.

. Gifts should be of the highest quality.

. Never buy gold or silk as a present for men.

. Silver is acceptable.

. Always give/receive gifts with the right hand.

. Saudis enjoy wearing scent - itr. The most popular is oud which can cost as much as £1000 an ounce.

. It is not bad etiquette to open gifts when received.

The above are a few of many examples of cross cultural differences in gift giving etiquette. It is advisable to try and ascertain some facts about the gift giving etiquette of any country you plan to visit on business. By doing so, you maximise the potential of your cross cultural encounter.
Cross cultural sensitivity

Cross cultural sensitivity is the quality of being aware and accepting of other cultures. This is important because what seems acceptable in some countries can be rude or derogatory in others.

A person who is culturally sensitive is aware that there could be differences between their culture and another person’s, and that these differences could affect their relationship and the way they communicate with each other. A culturally sensitive person would understand other countries’ traditions and ways of life, or attempt to learn and apply new understandings. Importantly, culturally sensitive people attempt to be free from prejudices and preconceptions about other cultures.

Contents
  1.  Importance
  2.  Being cross-culturally sensitive
  3.  Examples
  4.  Multiculturalism
  5.  See also
  6.  References

Importance

Tolerance, inter-cultural dialogue and respect for diversity are more essential than ever in a world where peoples are becoming more and more closely interconnected.

In some countries, photography of government buildings or monuments is a criminal offence

Cross cultural sensitivity is seen as an essential skill in today's world. Many employers see it as an essential skill. Cross cultural awareness is important when dealing in international relations or trade. It can mean the difference between a brand succeeding or failing in international markets.

Cross cultural sensitivity is an important skill in any profession that requires interpersonal communication. People in these professions need to be aware of the cultural factors that may affect others.

It is important as a traveller as well, knowing what is acceptable and what is not is a vital skill. When travelling to different countries in which one is unfamiliar it is always best to do research prior to travelling. This can help prevent the embarrassment of yourself and those around you.

Being cross-culturally sensitive

Being cross-culturally sensitive is important, however, it is not as easily done as it is said. Having cross-cultural competence requires research to gain a better understanding and an informed view of the culture. Working with people of different cultures and ethnic groups helps people become cross-culturally aware.

Many travel guides contain information about the culture and traditions of the country covered. This can help you gain a better understanding of how to behave during your stay in that country. Examples

Examples showing the importance of Cross Cultural Sensitivity and awareness are:

An American Company that manufactures golf balls packaged the balls in packs of four. They were successful and began selling internationally. However they were not so successful in Japan, where the number four holds the meaning of death.

In 2002 Unity College, Murray Bridge began a Student Exchange Program with Chuo University Suginami High School in Tokyo, Japan. This program has been extremely successful due to the both school's focus on Cross Cultural Awareness. This type of program is one of the many examples of Cross Cultural Awareness having a large positive effect on any group of people.

Cross Cultural Sensitivity is illustrated in the 1992 Comic Series Harvey & Norma by Jason Guist. In the now infamous edition, Harvey and Norma's World Travels, Harvey finds himself incarcerated after climbing atop a golden statue of Buddha. It was Harvey's lack of Cross Cultural Sensitivity and Awareness that caused this clear act of degradation of something holy. This act was repeated on the poster for the movie Hollywood Buddha. This caused great protest in Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Burma where the poster was shown.

Multiculturalism

The term multiculturalism generally refers to an applied ideology of racial, cultural and ethnic diversity within the demographics of a specified place, usually at the scale of an organization such as a school, business, neighborhood, city or nation.

Due to immigration (including increased acceptance of refugees), countries are increasingly becoming multi-cultural societies. Foreigners bring trade that can be conducive to increased economic activity, but it can also lead to social pressure and stressors from changes in population dynamics.
Cross-Cultural Communication with Business Management

Cross-cultural Communication with Business Management is a three-year degree programme designed for EU and International students who are particularly interested in developing expertise in the two interrelated areas of cross-cultural communication and business management, and in aspects of translation studies. It is taught jointly by the Norwich Business School and by the School of Language and Communication Studies.

In a globalised world where economies are interdependent, cross-cultural awareness is crucial. International businesses generally have a highly diverse workforce in terms of nationality and cultural background and face challenges from differences in language, values, belief systems, business ethics, business practices, behaviour, etiquette, and expectations. The enlargement of the EU and the world economy are not only creating new markets but also generating an awareness of a range of issues relating to language mediation in international business. For EU or International students, studying foundation Business Management in the context of a British university is the best way to develop insights into business practices in a different culture. On the other hand, cross-cultural work on translation and language issues will develop your sensitivity to cross-cultural transfer. As a graduate of this programme, you will be able to operate more effectively in international business because of your enhanced awareness of cross-cultural communication issues.

Two working languages are required to apply for this degree: English as a foreign language (IELTS 6.5 or equivalent with 6 in all categories) and your own native language.

The programme structure in Business Management is designed to provide the core disciplines of business and management. The design of the Business Management strand of the degree reflects a business management (BSc) rather than a business studies (BA) approach: the nature, tasks and context of the organisational management process are the chief focus. Modern principles of business management are introduced throughout the degree programme. Students devote approximately one third of their time to the study of Business Management in the Norwich Business School.

The language issues and translation issues modules make up the remaining two thirds of the degree. These modules deal with issues associated with globalisation and the rapid development of communication and communication media, and enable students to explore materials from a linguistic, cultural and cross-cultural perspective. Their concerns are both theoretical and practical, and work in each entails hands-on sensitisation to a range of questions relating to cross-cultural communication today. A variety of materials are considered, to uncover and investigate key aspects involved, for example, in the transposition and translation of a range of text types into other media and/or other languages across different genres (e.g. multilingual publications, multilingual packaging, web texts, film subtitles). While the modules consider issues across a range of languages, your own project work relates to your own language pair. Progression over three years is ensured by the shift from introductory modules in the first year, to greater specialisation, sophistication of approach and more choice in subsequent years.

The programme is flexible and comprises a range of modules, particularly in years two and three. There are 20 credits free choice in years two and three which enable students to take further Business Management modules or language or translation issues modules.

Distinctive Features

New Module for 2011-12: Intercultural Communication in Practice - Available in your 2nd or 3rd Year of Study

This module explores how students can become more effective communicators in international settings, by developing their intercultural competence. It is relevant to those wishing to pursue careers in international management and multilingual business. Invited speakers will introduce students to how intercultural communication operates in specific government and business organisations.

The optional translation work experience module provides you with the opportunity to experience professional translation first-hand. You will be taught alongside UK students, thus constantly enhancing your linguistic and cross-cultural communication skills. You will have the option of extending or consolidating your proficiency in another language from the wide range offered by the School to further broaden your access to other cultures.

Structure

Year 1

The first year is made up mostly of compulsory modules. In the Norwich Business School, these modules are: Introduction to Business; Developing Business Skills; and Introduction to Organisational Behaviour. The first year programme in LCS consists of a Study, Research and Communication Skills introductory module. The first year is completed by a module in the School of Political, Social and International Relations on globalisation and one module chosen from a range covering media, communication and language.

Year 2

The second year of study comprises two core modules in Business Management - Principles of Marketing and Human Resource Management. These modules are complemented by a choice of three 20-credit modules in LCS relating to cross-cultural communication and discourse and the choice of one module of a subsidiary language. Our range of Subsidiary languages is currently as follows: British Sign Language, Mandarin Chinese, French, German, Modern Greek, Italian, Japanese, Russian, and Spanish. Many of these can be studied for a second year (to intermediate level, i.e. A level equivalent); there are also one-year and two-year post-A level subsidiary courses in some languages. A further free choice of one module gives students the opportunity to further their expertise in Business Management or Cross-cultural communication, or to continue the study of the subsidiary language chosen in the first semester. Students may also choose a module from the range offered across the university.

Year 3

The third year comprises two modules in Business Management, including - Strategic Management and a choice of one other. These two modules are complemented by a choice of 4 modules relating to cross-cultural communication and translation and multicultural issues. Modules taken at level 2 in year two cannot be repeated at level 3 in year three. There are also 20 credits of free choice in year three.

Resources

The James Platt Language Centre houses a language laboratory, a viewing and editing room, a digitised interpreting suite for advanced language training and a large, multimedia self-access resources room with up-to-date computers linked to the internet, and translation software.

Events

Public Lecture Series: This public lecture series involves speakers from the UK, France, Spain and elsewhere and enables our students, local secondary school students and teachers, and the public, to have access to outside input into debates about language, translation and culture. More information on these can be found on our news and events website.

Employment prospects

The enlargement of the EU and the world economy are not only creating new markets but also generating an awareness of a range of issues relating to language mediation in international business. The business world has been learning its lessons very fast. This is making cross-cultural communication and translation an up-and-coming topic/discipline, likely to attract increasing numbers of applicants. Employers themselves are looking not just for business or mediation skills, but for an awareness of wider issues involved in business and in the process of mediation, and a concomitant ability to adapt to fast-paced change.

The acquisition of knowledge and understanding, skills and aptitudes required for a career in international business will enhance employability both in the UK and internationally for students on this programme. Students will be able to pursue careers in the areas of communication and intercultural consultancy in multinational and international business, in particular in the fields of intercultural training, human resource management, communication and marketing. Careers in government overseas agencies and organisations for international cooperation, the voluntary sector, local government community initiatives and business consultancies, as well as in the communication and media industries will also be open to students on this degree.

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